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Retrieved from http://faculty.concordia.edu/david_kluth/IDsite/Models.html
Below are a few instructional design models.
Visit the websites at the top of this page for many more.
The Dick and Carey Design Model uses a systems approach for designing instruction.
One of the best known models, its approach to designing instruction is similar
to that of software engineering. The design model describes all the phases of
an iterative process that starts by identifying instructional goals and ends
with summative evaluation. This model is applicable across a range of context
areas (e.g., K-12 to business to government) and users (novice to expert).
The Gerlach-Ely Design Model is a prescriptive model that is well suited to
K-12 and higher education. It is meant for novice instructional designers who
have knowledge and expertise in a specific context. The model includes strategies
for selecting and including media within instruction. It also handles the allocation
of resources.
The Hannafin Peck Design Model is
a three phase process. In the first phase, a needs assessment is performed.
This phase is followed by a design phase. In the third phase, instruction is
developed and implemented. In this model, all of the phases involve a process
of evaluation and revision.
The Knirk and Gustafson Design Model is a three stage process which includes
problem determination, design and development. The problem determination stage
involves identifying the problem and setting instructional goals. The design
stage includes developing objectives and specifying strategies. Finally, in
the development stage, materials are developed.
The Jerrold Kemp Design Model takes
a holistic approach to instructional design. Virtually all factors in the learning
environment are taken into consideration including subject analysis, learner
characteristics, learning objectives, teaching activities, resources (computers,
books, etc.), support services and evaluation. The process is iterative and
the design is subject to constant revision.
Tripp and Bichelmeyer's Rapid Prototyping
Design Model is a four level process that is intended to create instruction
for lessons as opposed to entire curricula. The process stages include performing
a needs analysis, constructing a prototype, utilizing the prototype to perform
research and installing the final system. This model relies on expert instructional
designers to utilize heuristics as well as their past experience and intuition
to guide the design.
Retrieved from http://leanlearning.wikispaces.com/instructional_design
Instructional Design
“Teachers must learn how to teach... they need only to be taught more effective ways of teaching.”—Burrhus Frederic Skinner
Knowles’ Postulates of Adult Learning
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| Visual representation of Knowles' andragogy showing the four postulates of adult learning |
For corporate learners—who are essentially adults—the instructional
premise around which training programs are designed should be andragogy
(teaching to adults), not pedagogy (teaching to children). For this,
Malcolm Knowles’ theory is used, which has four key postulates:
- Self-concept and Motivation to learn—Adults
need to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction.
This includes pre-assessments and custom learning paths for different
knowledge prerequisites.
- Experience—Experience (including mistakes)
provides the basis for learning activities. This encompasses practice
activities with feedback and remedial reviews.
- Readiness to learn—Adults are most interested
in learning those subjects that have immediate relevance to their job or
personal life. Job-specific content and job-aids are provided for this
purpose.
- Orientation to learning—Adult learning is
problem-centered rather than content-oriented. For this, scenarios and
simulations for real-world problem-solving experience are provided.
Bloom’s Taxonomy for Cognitive Domain
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| Depiction of Bloom's taxonomy for the cognitive domain showing the six mastery levels |
As most of corporate learning programs aim to build cognitive (thinking)
skills, Benjamin Bloom’s taxonomy is used to define the learning
objectives/ outcomes for such programs. Bloom’s taxonomy has six levels:
- Knowledge—This level of learning is said to be achieved if, after completing the content, learners are able to recall their learnings.
- Comprehension—This level of learning is said to
be achieved if, after completing the content, learners are able to
restate the concepts in their own words.
- Application—This level of learning is said to
be achieved if, after completing the content, learners are able to apply
their learnings at work.
- Analysis—This level of learning is said to be
achieved if, after completing the content, learners are able to analyze
the constituent components of typical work problems.
- Synthesis—This level of learning is said to be
achieved if, after completing the content, learners are able to
synthesize new solutions to typical work problems.
- Evaluation—This level of learning is said to be
achieved if, after completing the content, learners are able to judge
the quality of new solutions to typical work problems, and then decide
on the optimal solution.
Gagne’s Instructional Events
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| Rendition of Gagne's instructional events showing the nine steps to learning transfer |
Learning units need to have a structure that enables systematic
progression of instruction. Robert Gagne’s theory identifies this
step-by-step building of learning as nine instructional events:
- Gain attention, wherein the learner is presented with an introductory scenario or rhetorical questions
- Inform learners of objective, wherein the learner is presented with the learning objectives
- Stimulate recall of prior learning, wherein the learner is presented with experience recollection
- Present stimulus material, wherein the learner is presented with content presentation
- Provide learner guidance, wherein the learner is presented with graphics and examples
- Elicit performance, wherein the learner is presented with practice activities
- Provide feedback, wherein the learner is presented with practice feedback
- Assess performance, wherein the learner is presented with post-assessment
- Enhance retention and transfer, wherein the learner is presented with job aids and resources
Merrill’s Components Display Theory
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| Merrill's Components Display Theory presented as a 2-dimensional grid |
Within each learning unit, optimal presentation tactics and components
should be used to enable the learning process. David Merrill’s
Components Display Theory (CDT) on these learning components and their
displaying tactics enables instructional designers effectively keep the
learner engaged in each learning unit. Content of typical courseware
covers the “facts”, “concepts”, “procedures”, and “principles” of a
specific knowledge or skill component. Depending on the learning
outcome, a combination of presentation tactics and components enables
the learner to “remember” the new learnings acquired via the courseware,
“use” the learnings at work, and also “find” new ways to apply the
learnings.
The CDT tactics—called “primary performance forms”—are:
- Expository—”Show” the learners, including visuals and demonstrations
- Expository—”Tell” the learners, including text and audio
- Inquisitory—”Ask” the learners, including learner interactivities
The CDT components—called “secondary performance forms”—are:
- Prerequisites, such as learner prerequisites
- Objectives, such as learning objectives
- Helps, such as global/ contextual helps, hints, job-aids (templates)
- Mnemonics, such as job aids (checklists)
- Feedback, such as remedial, reinforcement
Source: http://elearning-guidelines.wikispaces.com/
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